Epoxy Powder Coating Thickness Guidelines

Seismic Retrofit Techniques for Foundation Repair

Okay, lets talk about epoxy powder coating thickness when it comes to foundation repair. Its not just about slapping on a bunch of the stuff and hoping for the best. Getting the thickness right is crucial for a durable and effective repair.


Finding water in your basement after rainfall isn't just bad luck - it's your foundation's way of waving frantic red flags foundation settlement signs Elmhurst Cherry Hill.

Think of it like this: too thin, and youre not providing enough protection. The underlying concrete might still be vulnerable to moisture, chemicals, or whatever caused the initial problem. The coating could chip or wear away prematurely, leaving you back at square one.


On the flip side, too thick isnt good either. It can become brittle and prone to cracking, especially with the natural movement that foundations experience. Plus, youre wasting material and adding unnecessary cost.


So, whats the sweet spot? Well, it varies depending on the specific product, the condition of the foundation, and the environmental factors at play. Generally, manufacturers will provide a recommended thickness range for their epoxy powder coatings. Its usually measured in mils (thousandths of an inch) or microns. Youll often see something like "6-10 mils" or "150-250 microns."


The key is to follow those guidelines closely. Consult the product data sheet, and if youre not sure, talk to the manufacturer or a qualified professional. They can help you determine the optimal thickness for your specific situation. Proper thickness ensures you get the full benefit of the epoxy powder coating: long-lasting protection, improved structural integrity, and peace of mind that your foundation repair is built to last.

Seismic Retrofit Techniques for Foundation Repair

Lateral Load Considerations in Foundation Stabilization

When it comes to ensuring the longevity of foundations, particularly those exposed to harsh environmental conditions, the application of epoxy powder coating is a practice that can significantly extend the lifespan of these structures. However, one critical aspect that often doesnt receive the attention it deserves is the thickness of this coating. The optimal epoxy powder coating thickness is not just a technical detail; its a pivotal factor in the durability and performance of the foundation over time.


Epoxy powder coating acts as a protective shield against corrosion, chemicals, and physical damage. When applied correctly, it forms a dense layer that adheres well to the substrate, preventing moisture ingress which is often the precursor to rust and degradation. But heres where thickness comes into play: too thin a coat might not provide adequate protection, leading to premature failure where environmental factors can penetrate through weak spots or pinholes. On the other hand, excessively thick coatings can lead to issues like uneven curing, peeling, or even cracking due to thermal expansion differences between the coating and the substrate.


The recommended thickness for epoxy powder coatings typically ranges from 2 to 5 mils (50 to 127 micrometers), depending on several factors including the type of environment (industrial vs. residential), expected exposure conditions (UV radiation, moisture levels), and specific performance requirements. This range ensures that while you have sufficient material to protect against wear and tear, you avoid wastage and potential application defects.


Achieving this optimal thickness requires precision in application techniques like electrostatic spraying or fluidized bed dipping. Professionals use sophisticated measurement tools such as magnetic induction gauges or eddy current devices post-application to verify that the coating meets specifications. This step is crucial because it directly correlates with how well the foundation will withstand years of exposure without needing extensive repairs or replacements.


In summary, understanding and adhering to guidelines for optimal epoxy powder coating thickness isnt just about following industry standards; its about ensuring that your investment in foundational structures pays off in terms of extended service life. Proper thickness means less frequent maintenance, reduced lifecycle costs, and ultimately, foundations that stand firm against time and elements. Thus, for anyone involved in construction or maintenance of foundational infrastructure, mastering these guidelines is key to achieving sustainable longevity.

Integrating Seismic and Lateral Load Retrofits with Existing Foundations

When it comes to foundation repair, selecting the appropriate thickness for epoxy powder coating is crucial, as it directly affects the longevity and effectiveness of the repair work. Several factors influence this decision, ensuring that the chosen thickness not only provides adequate protection but also aligns with practical and economic considerations.


First and foremost, environmental conditions play a significant role. Foundations are often exposed to varying weather conditions which can include moisture, temperature fluctuations, and UV radiation. A thicker coating might be necessary in environments where these elements are harsh to provide enhanced resistance against degradation. For instance, in areas with high humidity or direct sunlight exposure, a thicker layer can mitigate the impact of these elements by offering better barrier properties.


The type of substrate on which the epoxy powder is applied also dictates thickness selection. Concrete foundations, which are common in residential and commercial buildings, have different porosity levels compared to metal substrates like steel beams used in industrial settings. Concrete might require a slightly thicker application to ensure penetration into its porous surface for better adhesion and coverage over minor surface irregularities.


Another critical factor is the expected service life of the foundation repair. If the goal is long-term durability extending over decades, then opting for a thicker coat can be beneficial. This choice helps in reducing maintenance costs over time by minimizing the frequency of recoating or repairs due to wear from environmental stressors or mechanical damage.


Load-bearing requirements also influence thickness decisions. In scenarios where the foundation must support heavy structures or equipment, a robust coating thickness ensures that the epoxy layer does not compromise under stress. It provides additional strength and prevents cracking or peeling that could occur with thinner applications under heavy loads.


Economic considerations cannot be overlooked; cost-effectiveness involves balancing between initial investment and long-term savings. While thicker coatings might increase upfront costs due to material volume, they can lead to savings by reducing the need for frequent maintenance or replacement due to premature failure.


Lastly, application method impacts thickness selection. Techniques like electrostatic spraying allow for precise control over thickness through adjustments in voltage and gun distance, whereas manual methods might require a more generous application to account for human error or variability in application pressure.


In conclusion, choosing the right epoxy powder coating thickness for foundation repair involves a nuanced understanding of these influencing factors - environment, substrate type, service life expectations, load requirements, cost implications, and application methods. Each projects unique circumstances demand a tailored approach to ensure optimal performance while maintaining efficiency and cost-effectiveness. By considering these aspects holistically, professionals can make informed decisions that enhance the integrity and longevity of foundation repairs through proper epoxy powder coating application.

Integrating Seismic and Lateral Load Retrofits with Existing Foundations

Case Studies of Successful Foundation Retrofit Projects

Epoxy powder coating: its not just a pretty face for your foundation; its a shield. But like any good defense, it needs to be applied just right. Think Goldilocks. Too little, and youre leaving your foundation vulnerable to corrosion, moisture, and the general ravages of time. Too much, and you risk cracking, chipping, and a whole host of other problems that defeat the purpose of having a protective coating in the first place.


So, whats "just right?" Thats where the specific foundation material comes into play. Concrete, steel, cast iron – each has a different surface profile, porosity, and thermal expansion coefficient. What sticks beautifully and protects steel might peel right off concrete if you apply it with the same thickness.


Guidelines are your friend here. These recommended epoxy powder coating thickness ranges, often expressed in mils (thousandths of an inch), are based on extensive testing and real-world performance data. They consider factors like the substrates surface preparation, the epoxy powders formulation, and the anticipated environmental conditions. A properly applied coating thickness ensures optimal adhesion, flexibility, and resistance to impact, abrasion, and chemical attack.


For example, steel foundations, commonly found in pipelines or structural supports, often require a thicker coating than concrete foundations due to the inherent risk of corrosion in steel. Conversely, applying an excessively thick coating to concrete could lead to stress-induced cracking as the concrete expands and contracts with temperature changes.


The key takeaway? Dont just slather it on. Consult the manufacturers recommendations for the specific epoxy powder coating youre using and, more importantly, understand the properties of your foundation material. This diligent approach to thickness ensures your epoxy powder coating does its job, protecting your foundation for years to come. Think of it as tailoring a suit – it needs to fit perfectly to look good and function effectively.

When discussing the application techniques for epoxy powder coating and their impact on achieving the target thickness, its essential to understand that precision in this process significantly influences both the quality and functionality of the final product. Epoxy powder coating is widely used due to its durability, resistance to corrosion, and aesthetic appeal, making the correct thickness crucial for optimal performance.


The primary method for applying epoxy powder is electrostatic spraying, where charged particles of powder are attracted to a grounded workpiece. This technique offers a high degree of control over the thickness by adjusting factors such as spray gun settings, line speed, and voltage. For instance, increasing the voltage can lead to a denser cloud of powder adhering to the part, potentially increasing thickness but also risking over-application if not monitored closely. Conversely, lower voltages might result in insufficient coverage or unevenness.


Another critical aspect is the recovery and reuse system in powder coating lines. Efficient recovery systems ensure that excess powder is recirculated back into use without significant loss of quality or quantity. This not only helps maintain consistency in thickness but also contributes to cost-effectiveness and environmental sustainability by reducing waste.


Curing conditions post-application play a pivotal role as well. The thickness can be affected during curing if not properly managed; too short a time might leave uncured areas or under-thickness regions, whereas too long might lead to excessive flow-out causing thinning at edges or details of complex parts.


In practice, achieving target thickness requires a balance between these variables. Technicians often rely on guidelines like ASTM standards which specify minimum and maximum thicknesses for various applications based on performance requirements. Regular calibration of equipment and training for operators are fundamental practices here, ensuring that deviations from standard operating procedures are minimized.


Moreover, real-time monitoring through digital tools like laser micrometers can provide immediate feedback during application, allowing for adjustments on-the-fly which significantly aids in maintaining precise control over thickness.


In conclusion, while epoxy powder coating provides excellent protective qualities when applied correctly, achieving the desired thickness involves mastering various application techniques. Each technique has its nuances that impact the outcome; thus, understanding these dynamics ensures that products meet both aesthetic expectations and functional specifications set forth by industry standards or specific project requirements. This careful orchestration between technology and technique underscores why epoxy powder coating remains a preferred choice in numerous industrial applications today.

Measuring and verifying the thickness of epoxy powder coating on foundation surfaces is a critical step to ensure durability, protection, and aesthetic quality. Epoxy powder coating is widely used in industrial applications due to its excellent resistance to corrosion, chemicals, and wear. To maintain these properties, its essential that the coating is applied at the correct thickness.


The process begins with selecting appropriate measurement tools. Typically, a non-destructive method like magnetic or eddy current thickness gauges is preferred because it allows for multiple measurements without damaging the coating. Magnetic gauges work well on ferrous substrates like steel foundations, while eddy current devices are suitable for non-ferrous materials.


Before measuring, its important to clean the surface thoroughly to remove any dust, oil, or debris that could skew the readings. Calibration of the gauge against known standards is also crucial for accuracy. Once prepared, technicians take several readings across different areas of the foundation to account for variability in application thickness. This might include edges, flat surfaces, and near welds where variations are common.


The guidelines generally specify a range for optimal thickness; too thin a layer might not provide adequate protection against environmental factors, whereas too thick can lead to issues like cracking or peeling over time due to internal stresses within the coating. For instance, typical recommendations might suggest a dry film thickness (DFT) between 2-5 mils (50-125 microns), depending on specific environmental conditions and intended use.


After obtaining measurements, verification involves comparing these values against the specified guidelines. If discrepancies are found outside acceptable tolerances (usually ±10% of target), corrective actions might be necessary. This could mean reapplying additional coats or sanding down excess material in some areas.


In conclusion, meticulous measurement and verification of epoxy powder coating thickness on foundation surfaces ensure that protective qualities are maintained over time. This practice not only extends the lifespan of industrial installations but also maintains compliance with quality standards set by industry regulations or client specifications. Regular training for technicians on proper measurement techniques and understanding of guideline implications further enhances this processs effectiveness.

When it comes to epoxy powder coating, achieving the correct thickness is crucial for both the aesthetic quality and functional performance of the coated item. However, incorrect thickness can lead to a variety of common problems, each with its own set of solutions.


One prevalent issue is insufficient coating thickness. When the epoxy layer is too thin, it fails to provide adequate protection against corrosion, wear, and environmental factors. This can result in premature failure of the coating, leading to rust or damage on the substrate material. To address this, applicators should ensure they are using precise measurement tools like magnetic gauges or electronic thickness meters during application. Additionally, adjusting the spray gun settings for better powder flow and increasing application time can help achieve the desired thickness.


Conversely, excessive coating thickness presents its own challenges. Overly thick layers can lead to defects such as orange peel texture, where the surface looks uneven and bumpy due to uneven curing or trapped air. It might also cause sagging or dripping during the curing process because of gravity pulling down on the heavy coat. Solutions include recalibrating equipment to control powder output more finely and training operators to recognize when enough is enough. Regular quality checks with a mil gauge post-application can prevent over-application.


Another issue related to incorrect thickness is poor adhesion, often seen when layers are not uniformly applied. If parts of the surface have different thicknesses, thermal expansion during curing might not be uniform, leading to stress cracks or delamination where the coating peels away from the substrate. Here, maintaining consistent application speed and distance from the part being coated helps ensure even distribution. Pre-treatment processes like sandblasting or chemical etching should be optimized to enhance surface adhesion before coating.


Lastly, color inconsistency due to varying thicknesses can occur since thicker areas might absorb more light differently than thinner ones under certain lighting conditions. To mitigate this visual discrepancy, color matching should be done considering potential variations in thickness; sometimes using a slightly lighter base color for thicker applications can compensate visually.


In summary, maintaining proper epoxy powder coating thickness requires vigilant monitoring and adjustment during application. By understanding these common problems-insufficient protection from thin coats, physical defects from thick coats, adhesion issues from uneven application, and visual inconsistencies-operators can implement targeted solutions like precision equipment use, process adjustments, and enhanced training. These practices not only improve product longevity but also maintain aesthetic standards expected by consumers in various industries utilizing epoxy coatings.

Lets talk about epoxy powder coating and how the right thickness can be a game-changer, especially when it comes to fixing foundations. Think of it like this: youre trying to mend something really important, the base of a building, and you want it to last. Epoxy powder coating is a great tool, but just like any tool, you need to use it correctly. That means getting the thickness just right.


Weve seen some amazing successes where carefully applying epoxy powder coating at the optimal thickness has completely revitalized failing foundations. One example that springs to mind involves a historic building with a severely cracked concrete foundation. Simply patching the cracks wouldnt have been enough; the problem would have just resurface. Instead, engineers opted for epoxy powder coating after stabilizing the structure. They meticulously calculated the ideal thickness – thick enough to provide robust protection against moisture and further cracking, but not so thick that it became brittle and prone to its own failures. The result? A foundation thats not only structurally sound but also protected against future degradation.


Another case involved a coastal property where saltwater intrusion was wreaking havoc on the foundation. Here, the optimal epoxy powder coating thickness acted as a barrier, shielding the concrete from the corrosive effects of the salt. Too thin, and the salt would have seeped through. Too thick, and the coating might have cracked under the stress of the building's movement. Finding that sweet spot was critical.


These arent just isolated incidents. Weve seen a pattern: when engineers and contractors pay close attention to the manufacturers guidelines and consider the specific environmental conditions, epoxy powder coating becomes a powerful solution for foundation repair. Its about understanding the material, understanding the problem, and using the right amount to create a durable, long-lasting fix. Its not a magic bullet, but when applied correctly, with the right thickness in mind, it can make all the difference.

A wooden pier in Corfu, Greece

A pier is a raised structure that rises above a body of water and usually juts out from its shore, typically supported by piles or pillars, and provides above-water access to offshore areas. Frequent pier uses include fishing, boat docking and access for both passengers and cargo, and oceanside recreation. Bridges, buildings, and walkways may all be supported by architectural piers. Their open structure allows tides and currents to flow relatively unhindered, whereas the more solid foundations of a quay or the closely spaced piles of a wharf can act as a breakwater, and are consequently more liable to silting. Piers can range in size and complexity from a simple lightweight wooden structure to major structures extended over 1,600 m (5,200 ft). In American English, a pier may be synonymous with a dock.

Piers have been built for several purposes, and because these different purposes have distinct regional variances, the term pier tends to have different nuances of meaning in different parts of the world. Thus in North America and Australia, where many ports were, until recently, built on the multiple pier model, the term tends to imply a current or former cargo-handling facility. In contrast, in Europe, where ports more often use basins and river-side quays than piers, the term is principally associated with the image of a Victorian cast iron pleasure pier which emerged in Great Britain during the early 19th century. However, the earliest piers pre-date the Victorian age.

Types

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Piers can be categorized into different groupings according to the principal purpose.[1] However, there is considerable overlap between these categories. For example, pleasure piers often also allow for the docking of pleasure steamers and other similar craft, while working piers have often been converted to leisure use after being rendered obsolete by advanced developments in cargo-handling technology. Many piers are floating piers, to ensure that the piers raise and lower with the tide along with the boats tied to them. This prevents a situation where lines become overly taut or loose by rising or lowering tides. An overly taut or loose tie-line can damage boats by pulling them out of the water or allowing them so much leeway that they bang forcefully against the sides of the pier.

Working piers

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Out-of-use industrial bulk cargo Pier, Cook Inlet, Alaska.

Working piers were built for the handling of passengers and cargo onto and off ships or (as at Wigan Pier) canal boats. Working piers themselves fall into two different groups. Longer individual piers are often found at ports with large tidal ranges, with the pier stretching far enough off shore to reach deep water at low tide. Such piers provided an economical alternative to impounded docks where cargo volumes were low, or where specialist bulk cargo was handled, such as at coal piers. The other form of working pier, often called the finger pier, was built at ports with smaller tidal ranges. Here the principal advantage was to give a greater available quay length for ships to berth against compared to a linear littoral quayside, and such piers are usually much shorter. Typically each pier would carry a single transit shed the length of the pier, with ships berthing bow or stern in to the shore. Some major ports consisted of large numbers of such piers lining the foreshore, classic examples being the Hudson River frontage of New York, or the Embarcadero in San Francisco.

The advent of container shipping, with its need for large container handling spaces adjacent to the shipping berths, has made working piers obsolete for the handling of general cargo, although some still survive for the handling of passenger ships or bulk cargos. One example, is in use in Progreso, Yucatán, where a pier extends more than 4 miles into the Gulf of Mexico, making it the longest pier in the world. The Progreso Pier supplies much of the peninsula with transportation for the fishing and cargo industries and serves as a port for large cruise ships in the area. Many other working piers have been demolished, or remain derelict, but some have been recycled as pleasure piers. The best known example of this is Pier 39 in San Francisco.

At Southport and the Tweed River on the Gold Coast in Australia, there are piers that support equipment for a sand bypassing system that maintains the health of sandy beaches and navigation channels.

Pleasure piers

[edit]
Print of a Victorian pier in Margate in the English county of Kent, 1897

Pleasure piers were first built in Britain during the early 19th century.[2] The earliest structures were Ryde Pier, built in 1813/4, Trinity Chain Pier near Leith, built in 1821, Brighton Chain Pier, built in 1823.[2] and Margate Jetty 1823/24 originally a timber built pier.

Only the oldest of these piers still remains. At that time, the introduction of steamships and railways for the first time permitted mass tourism to dedicated seaside resorts. The large tidal ranges at many such resorts meant that passengers arriving by pleasure steamer could use a pier to disembark safely.[3] Also, for much of the day, the sea was not visible from the shore and the pleasure pier permitted holidaymakers to promenade over and alongside the sea at all times.[4] The world's longest pleasure pier is at Southend-on-Sea, Essex, and extends 1.3 miles (2.1 km) into the Thames Estuary.[2] The longest pier on the West Coast of the US is the Santa Cruz Wharf, with a length of 2,745 feet (837 m).[5]

Providing a walkway out to sea, pleasure piers often include amusements and theatres as part of their attractions.[4] Such a pier may be unroofed, closed, or partly open and partly closed. Sometimes a pier has two decks. Galveston Island Historic Pleasure Pier in Galveston, Texas has a roller coaster, 15 rides, carnival games and souvenir shops.[6]

Early pleasure piers were of complete timber construction, as was with Margate which opened in 1824. The first iron and timber built pleasure pier Margate Jetty, opened in 1855.[7] Margate pier was wrecked by a storm in January 1978 and not repaired.[8][7] The longest iron pleasure pier still remaining is the one at Southend. First opened as a wooden pier in 1829, it was reconstructed in iron and completed in 1889. In a 2006 UK poll, the public voted the seaside pier onto the list of icons of England.[9]

Fishing piers

[edit]

Many piers are built for the purpose of providing boatless anglers access to fishing grounds that are otherwise inaccessible.[10] Many "Free Piers" are available in larger harbors which differ from private piers. Free Piers are often primarily used for fishing. Fishing from a pier presents a set of different circumstances to fishing from the shore or beach, as you do not need to cast out into the deeper water. This being the case there are specific fishing rigs that have been created specifically for pier fishing[11] which allow for the direct access to deeper water.

Piers of the world

[edit]

Belgium

[edit]

In Blankenberge a first pleasure pier was built in 1894. After its destruction in the World War I, a new pier was built in 1933. It remained till the present day, but was partially transformed and modernized in 1999–2004.

In Nieuwpoort, Belgium there is a pleasure pier on both sides of the river IJzer.

Netherlands

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The Scheveningen Pier

Scheveningen, the coastal resort town of The Hague, boasts the largest pier in the Netherlands, completed in 1961. A crane, built on top of the pier's panorama tower, provides the opportunity to make a 60-metre (200 ft) high bungee jump over the North Sea waves. The present pier is a successor of an earlier pier, which was completed in 1901 but in 1943 destroyed by the German occupation forces.

United Kingdom

[edit]

England and Wales

[edit]

The first recorded pier in England was Ryde Pier, opened in 1814 on the Isle of Wight, as a landing stage to allow ferries to and from the mainland to berth. It is still used for this purpose today.[12] It also had a leisure function in the past, with the pier head once containing a pavilion, and there are still refreshment facilities today. The oldest cast iron pier in the world is Town Pier, Gravesend, in Kent, which opened in 1834. However, it is not recognised by the National Piers Society as being a seaside pier.[13]

Brighton Palace Pier (pictured in 2011), opened in 1899

Following the building of the world's first seaside pier at Ryde, the pier became fashionable at seaside resorts in England and Wales during the Victorian era, peaking in the 1860s with 22 being built in that decade.[14] A symbol of the typical British seaside holiday, by 1914, more than 100 pleasure piers were located around the UK coast.[2] Regarded as being among the finest Victorian architecture, there are still a significant number of seaside piers of architectural merit still standing, although some have been lost, including Margate, two at Brighton in East Sussex, one at New Brighton in the Wirral and three at Blackpool in Lancashire.[4] Two piers, Brighton's now derelict West Pier and Clevedon Pier, were Grade 1 listed. The Birnbeck Pier in Weston-super-Mare is the only pier in the world linked to an island. The National Piers Society gives a figure of 55 surviving seaside piers in England and Wales.[1] In 2017, Brighton Palace Pier was said to be the most visited tourist attraction outside London, with over 4.5 million visitors the previous year.[15]

See also

[edit]
  • Boardwalk
  • Breakwater
  • Dock
  • Jetty
  • List of piers
  • Seaside resort
  • Wharf

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b "Piers". National Piers Society. 2006. Archived from the original on September 29, 2008. Retrieved February 24, 2012.
  2. ^ a b c d "The expert selection: British seaside piers". No. 1 August 2014. Financial Times. 15 June 2015. Archived from the original on 2022-12-10.
  3. ^ Gladwell, Andrew (2015). "Introduction". London's Pleasure Steamers. Amberley Publishing. ISBN 978-1445641584.
  4. ^ a b c "A very British affair - the fall and rise of the seaside pier". BBC News. 16 June 2015.
  5. ^ "California Pier Statistics, Longest Piers". seecalifornia.com. Retrieved 2014-02-10.
  6. ^ Aulds, T.J. (January 28, 2012). "Landry's Corp. is close to revealing plans". News Article. Galveston Daily News. Archived from the original on January 31, 2012.
  7. ^ a b "200 years of historic British piers: in pictures". The Telegraph. Retrieved 15 June 2015
  8. ^ "The destruction of Margate jetty in the great storm of January 1978". 13 January 2018.
  9. ^ "ICONS of England - the 100 ICONS as voted by the public". Culture 24 News. 15 June 2015.
  10. ^ "Landscape Design Book" (PDF). University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point. 2013. Retrieved January 6, 2015.[permanent dead link]
  11. ^ VS, Marco (2021-03-21). "Pier Fishing Rigs: 6 Common Types of Rigs for fishing from a Pier". Pro Fishing Reviews. Retrieved 2021-10-10.
  12. ^ "Britain's best seaside piers". The Telegraph. Retrieved 15 June 2015
  13. ^ "The oldest surviving cast iron pier in the world". BBC. February 9, 2006. Retrieved March 26, 2006.
  14. ^ Dobraszczyk, Paul (2014). Iron, Ornament and Architecture in Victorian Britain: Myth and Modernity, Excess and Enchantment. Ashgate Publishing. p. 143. ISBN 978-1-472-41898-2.
  15. ^ "Brighton Palace Pier named as Britain's most visited tourist attraction outside London". Brighton and Hove News. 2 August 2017. Retrieved 23 January 2025.

Further reading

[edit]
  • Turner, K., (1999), Pier Railways and Tramways of the British Isles, The Oakwood Press, No. LP60, ISBN 0-85361-541-1.
  • Wills, Anthony; Phillips, Tim (2014). British Seaside Piers. London: English Heritage. ISBN 9781848022645.
[edit]
  • The Piers Project
  • National Piers Society
  • Details on UK Piers including Webcams

 

Shallow foundation construction example

A shallow foundation is a type of building foundation that transfers structural load to the Earth very near to the surface, rather than to a subsurface layer or a range of depths, as does a deep foundation. Customarily, a shallow foundation is considered as such when the width of the entire foundation is greater than its depth.[1] In comparison to deep foundations, shallow foundations are less technical, thus making them more economical and the most widely used for relatively light structures.

Types

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Footings are always wider than the members that they support. Structural loads from a column or wall are usually greater than 1,000 kPa, while the soil's bearing capacity is commonly less than that (typically less than 400 kPa). By possessing a larger bearing area, the foundation distributes the pressure to the soil, decreasing the bearing pressure to within allowable values.[2] A structure is not limited to one footing. Multiple types of footings may be used in a construction project.

Wall footing

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Also called strip footing, a wall footing is a continuous strip that supports structural and non-structural load-bearing walls. Found directly under the wall, Its width is commonly 2-3 times wider than the wall above it.[3]

Detail Section of a strip footing and its wall.

Isolated footing

[edit]

Also called single-column footing, an isolated footing is a square, rectangular, or circular slab that supports the structural members individually. Generally, each column is set on an individual footing to transmit and distribute the load of the structure to the soil underneath. Sometimes, an isolated footing can be sloped or stepped at the base to spread greater loads. This type of footing is used when the structural load is relatively low, columns are widely spaced, and the soil's bearing capacity is adequate at a shallow depth.

Combined footing

[edit]

When more than one column shares the same footing, it is called a combined footing. A combined footing is typically utilized when the spacing of the columns is too restricted such that if isolated footing were used, they would overlap one another. Also, when property lines make isolated footings eccentrically loaded, combined footings are preferred.

When the load among the columns is equal, the combined footing may be rectangular. Conversely, when the load among the columns is unequal, the combined footing should be trapezoidal.

Strap footing

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A strap footing connects individual columns with the use of a strap beam. The general purpose of a strap footing is alike to those of a combined footing, where the spacing is possibly limited and/or the columns are adjacent to the property lines.

Mat foundation with its concrete undergoing curing.

Mat foundation

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Also called raft foundation, a mat foundation is a single continuous slab that covers the entirety of the base of a building. Mat foundations support all the loads of the structure and transmit them to the ground evenly. Soil conditions may prevent other footings from being used. Since this type of foundation distributes the load coming from the building uniformly over a considerably large area, it is favored when individual footings are unfeasible due to the low bearing capacity of the soil.

Diagrams of the types of shallow foundations.

Slab-on-grade foundation

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Pouring a slab-on-grade foundation

Slab-on-grade or floating slab foundations are a structural engineering practice whereby the reinforced concrete slab that is to serve as the foundation for the structure is formed from formwork set into the ground. The concrete is then poured into the formwork, leaving no space between the ground and the structure. This type of construction is most often seen in warmer climates, where ground freezing and thawing is less of a concern and where there is no need for heat ducting underneath the floor. Frost Protected Shallow Foundations (or FPSF) which are used in areas of potential frost heave, are a form of slab-on-grade foundation.[4]

Remodeling or extending such a structure may be more difficult. Over the long term, ground settling (or subsidence) may be a problem, as a slab foundation cannot be readily jacked up to compensate; proper soil compaction prior to pour can minimize this. The slab can be decoupled from ground temperatures by insulation, with the concrete poured directly over insulation (for example, extruded polystyrene foam panels), or heating provisions (such as hydronic heating) can be built into the slab.

Slab-on-grade foundations should not be used in areas with expansive clay soil. While elevated structural slabs actually perform better on expansive clays, it is generally accepted by the engineering community that slab-on-grade foundations offer the greatest cost-to-performance ratio for tract homes. Elevated structural slabs are generally only found on custom homes or homes with basements.

Copper piping, commonly used to carry natural gas and water, reacts with concrete over a long period, slowly degrading until the pipe fails. This can lead to what is commonly referred to as slab leaks. These occur when pipes begin to leak from within the slab. Signs of a slab leak range from unexplained dampened carpet spots, to drops in water pressure and wet discoloration on exterior foundation walls.[5] Copper pipes must be lagged (that is, insulated) or run through a conduit or plumbed into the building above the slab. Electrical conduits through the slab must be water-tight, as they extend below ground level and can potentially expose wiring to groundwater.

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Akhter, Shahin. "Shallow foundation – Definition, Types, Uses and Diagrams". Pro Civil Engineer. Retrieved July 31, 2021.
  2. ^ Gillesania, Diego Inocencio T. (2004). Fundamentals of reinforced concrete design (2nd ed.). [Cebu, Cirty, Philippines]. p. 259. ISBN 971-8614-26-5. OCLC 1015901733.cite book: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  3. ^ Mahdi, Sheikh. "8 Most Important Types of Foundation". civiltoday.com. Retrieved July 31, 2021.
  4. ^ "Slab-on-Grade Foundation Detail & Insulation, Building Guide".
  5. ^ "Slab Leak Repair McKinney, Frisco, and Allen Tx - Hackler Plumbing". Hacklerplumbingmckinney.com. 2013-11-08. Retrieved 2018-08-20.
[edit]
Tracked vehicle configured as a dedicated pile driver

A pile driver is a heavy-duty tool used to drive piles into soil to build piers, bridges, cofferdams, and other "pole" supported structures, and patterns of pilings as part of permanent deep foundations for buildings or other structures. Pilings may be made of wood, solid steel, or tubular steel (often later filled with concrete), and may be driven entirely underwater/underground, or remain partially aboveground as elements of a finished structure.

The term "pile driver" is also used to describe members of the construction crew associated with the task,[1] also colloquially known as "pile bucks".[2]

The most common form of pile driver uses a heavy weight situated between vertical guides placed above a pile. The weight is raised by some motive power (which may include hydraulics, steam, diesel, electrical motor, or manual labor). At its apex the weight is released, impacting the pile and driving it into the ground.[1][3]

History

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Replica of Ancient Roman pile driver used at the construction of Caesar's Rhine bridges (55 BC)
18th-century Pile driver, from Abhandlung vom Wasserbau an Strömen, 1769

There are a number of claims to the invention of the pile driver. A mechanically sound drawing of a pile driver appeared as early as 1475 in Francesco di Giorgio Martini's treatise Trattato di Architectura.[4] Also, several other prominent inventors—James Nasmyth (son of Alexander Nasmyth), who invented a steam-powered pile driver in 1845,[5] watchmaker James Valoué,[6] Count Giovan Battista Gazzola,[7] and Leonardo da Vinci[8]—have all been credited with inventing the device. However, there is evidence that a comparable device was used in the construction of Crannogs at Oakbank and Loch Tay in Scotland as early as 5000 years ago.[9] In 1801 John Rennie came up with a steam pile driver in Britain.[10] Otis Tufts is credited with inventing the steam pile driver in the United States.[11]

Types

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Pile driver, 1917

Ancient pile driving equipment used human or animal labor to lift weights, usually by means of pulleys, then dropping the weight onto the upper end of the pile. Modern piledriving equipment variously uses hydraulics, steam, diesel, or electric power to raise the weight and guide the pile.

Diesel hammer

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Concrete spun pile driving using diesel hammer in Patimban Deep Sea Port, Indonesia

A modern diesel pile hammer is a large two-stroke diesel engine. The weight is the piston, and the apparatus which connects to the top of the pile is the cylinder. Piledriving is started by raising the weight; usually a cable from the crane holding the pile driver — This draws air into the cylinder. Diesel fuel is injected into the cylinder. The weight is dropped, using a quick-release. The weight of the piston compresses the air/fuel mixture, heating it to the ignition point of diesel fuel. The mixture ignites, transferring the energy of the falling weight to the pile head, and driving the weight up. The rising weight draws in fresh air, and the cycle continues until the fuel is depleted or is halted by the crew.[12]

From an army manual on pile driving hammers: The initial start-up of the hammer requires that the piston (ram) be raised to a point where the trip automatically releases the piston, allowing it to fall. As the piston falls, it activates the fuel pump, which discharges a metered amount of fuel into the ball pan of the impact block. The falling piston blocks the exhaust ports, and compression of fuel trapped in the cylinder begins. The compressed air exerts a pre-load force to hold the impact block firmly against the drive cap and pile. At the bottom of the compression stroke, the piston strikes the impact block, atomizing the fuel and starting the pile on its downward movement. In the instant after the piston strikes, the atomized fuel ignites, and the resulting explosion exerts a greater force on the already moving pile, driving it further into the ground. The reaction of the explosion rebounding from the resistance of the pile drives the piston upward. As the piston rises, the exhaust ports open, releasing the exhaust gases to the atmosphere. After the piston stops its upward movement, it again falls by gravity to start another cycle.

Vertical travel lead systems

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Berminghammer vertical travel leads in use
Military building mobile unit on "Army-2021" exhibition

Vertical travel leads come in two main forms: spud and box lead types. Box leads are very common in the Southern United States and spud leads are common in the Northern United States, Canada and Europe.

Hydraulic hammer

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A hydraulic hammer is a modern type of piling hammer used instead of diesel and air hammers for driving steel pipe, precast concrete, and timber piles. Hydraulic hammers are more environmentally acceptable than older, less efficient hammers as they generate less noise and pollutants. In many cases the dominant noise is caused by the impact of the hammer on the pile, or the impacts between components of the hammer, so that the resulting noise level can be similar to diesel hammers.[12]

Hydraulic press-in

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A steel sheet pile being hydraulically pressed

Hydraulic press-in equipment installs piles using hydraulic rams to press piles into the ground. This system is preferred where vibration is a concern. There are press attachments that can adapt to conventional pile driving rigs to press 2 pairs of sheet piles simultaneously. Other types of press equipment sit atop existing sheet piles and grip previously driven piles. This system allows for greater press-in and extraction force to be used since more reaction force is developed.[12] The reaction-based machines operate at only 69 dB at 23 ft allowing for installation and extraction of piles in close proximity to sensitive areas where traditional methods may threaten the stability of existing structures.

Such equipment and methods are specified in portions of the internal drainage system in the New Orleans area after Hurricane Katrina, as well as projects where noise, vibration and access are a concern.

Vibratory pile driver/extractor

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A diesel-powered vibratory pile driver on a steel I-beam

Vibratory pile hammers contain a system of counter-rotating eccentric weights, powered by hydraulic motors, and designed so that horizontal vibrations cancel out, while vertical vibrations are transmitted into the pile. The pile driving machine positioned over the pile with an excavator or crane, and is fastened to the pile by a clamp and/or bolts. Vibratory hammers can drive or extract a pile. Extraction is commonly used to recover steel I-beams used in temporary foundation shoring. Hydraulic fluid is supplied to the driver by a diesel engine-powered pump mounted in a trailer or van, and connected to the driver head via hoses. When the pile driver is connected to a dragline excavator, it is powered by the excavator's diesel engine. Vibratory pile drivers are often chosen to mitigate noise, as when the construction is near residences or office buildings, or when there is insufficient vertical clearance to permit use of a conventional pile hammer (for example when retrofitting additional piles to a bridge column or abutment footing). Hammers are available with several different vibration rates, ranging from 1200 vibrations per minute to 2400 VPM. The vibration rate chosen is influenced by soil conditions and other factors, such as power requirements and equipment cost.

Piling rig

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A Junttan purpose-built piledriving rig in Jyväskylä, Finland

A piling rig is a large track-mounted drill used in foundation projects which require drilling into sandy soil, clay, silty clay, and similar environments. Such rigs are similar in function to oil drilling rigs, and can be equipped with a short screw (for dry soil), rotary bucket (for wet soil) or core drill (for rock), along with other options. Expressways, bridges, industrial and civil buildings, diaphragm walls, water conservancy projects, slope protection, and seismic retrofitting are all projects which may require piling rigs.

Environmental effects

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The underwater sound pressure caused by pile-driving may be deleterious to nearby fish.[13][14] State and local regulatory agencies manage environment issues associated with pile-driving.[15] Mitigation methods include bubble curtains, balloons, internal combustion water hammers.[16]

See also

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  • Auger (drill)
  • Deep foundation
  • Post pounder
  • Drilling rig

References

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  1. ^ a b Piles and Pile Foundations. C.Viggiani, A.Mandolini, G.Russo. 296 pag, ISBN 978-0367865443, ISBN 0367865440
  2. ^ Glossary of Pile-driving Terms, americanpiledriving.com
  3. ^ Pile Foundations. R.D. Chellis (1961) 704 pag, ISBN 0070107513 ISBN 978-0070107519
  4. ^ Ladislao Reti, "Francesco di Giorgio Martini's Treatise on Engineering and Its Plagiarists", Technology and Culture, Vol. 4, No. 3. (Summer, 1963), pp. 287–298 (297f.)
  5. ^ Hart-Davis, Adam (3 April 2017). Engineers. Dorling Kindersley Limited. ISBN 9781409322245 – via Google Books.
  6. ^ Science & Society Picture Library Image of Valoué's design
  7. ^ Pile-driver Information on Gazzola's design
  8. ^ Leonardo da Vinci — Pile Driver Information at Italy's National Museum of Science and Technology
  9. ^ History Trails: Ancient Crannogs from BBC's Mysterious Ancestors series
  10. ^ Fleming, Ken; Weltman, Austin; Randolph, Mark; Elson, Keith (25 September 2008). Piling Engineering, Third Edition. CRC Press. ISBN 9780203937648 – via Google Books.
  11. ^ Hevesi, Dennis (July 3, 2008). "R. C. Seamans Jr., NASA Figure, Dies at 89". New York Times. Retrieved 2008-07-03.
  12. ^ a b c Pile Foundation: Design and Construction. Satyender Mittal (2017) 296 pag. ISBN 9386478374, ISBN 978-9386478375
  13. ^ Halvorsen, M. B., Casper, B. M., Woodley, C. M., Carlson, T. J., & Popper, A. N. (2012). Threshold for onset of injury in Chinook salmon from exposure to impulsive pile driving sounds. PLoS ONE, 7(6), e38968.
  14. ^ Halvorsen, M. B., Casper, B. M., Matthews, F., Carlson, T. J., & Popper, A. N. (2012). Effects of exposure to pile-driving sounds on the lake sturgeon, Nile tilapia and hogchoker. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences, 279(1748), 4705-4714.
  15. ^ "Fisheries – Bioacoustics". Caltrans. Retrieved 2011-02-03.
  16. ^ "Noise mitigation for the construction of increasingly large offshore wind turbines" (PDF). Federal Agency for Nature Conservation. November 2018.
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  • Website about Vulcan Iron Works, which produced pile drivers from the 1870s through the 1990s

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